Exploring internal child sex trafficking networks using social network analysis

This article explores the potential of social network analysis as a tool in supporting the investigation of internal child sex trafficking in the UK. In doing so, it uses only data, software, and training already available to UK police. Data from two major operations are analysed using in-built centrality metrics, designed to measure a network’s overarching structural properties and identify particularly powerful individuals. This work addresses victim networks alongside offender networks. The insights generated by SNA inform ideas for targeted interventions based on the principles of Situational Crime Prevention. These harm-reduction initiatives go beyond traditional enforcement to cover prevention, disruption, prosecution, etc. This article ends by discussing how SNA can be applied and further developed by frontline policing, strategic policing, prosecution, and policy and research

Immaterial Boys? A Large-Scale Exploration of Gender-Based Differences in Child Sexual Exploitation Service Users.

Child sexual exploitation is increasingly recognized nationally and internationally as a pressing child protection, crime prevention, and public health issue. In the United Kingdom, for example, a recent series of high-profile cases has fueled pressure on policy makers and practitioners to improve responses. Yet, prevailing discourse, research, and interventions around child sexual exploitation have focused overwhelmingly on female victims. This study was designed to help redress fundamental knowledge gaps around boys affected by sexual exploitation. This was achieved through rigorous quantitative analysis of individual-level data for 9,042 users of child sexual exploitation services in the United Kingdom. One third of the sample were boys, and gender was associated with statistically significant differences on many variables. The results of this exploratory study highlight the need for further targeted research and more nuanced and inclusive counter-strategies

Designing police investigation strategies for child sex offending groups

Through a multi-method approach, this thesis uncovered the nature and characteristics of a hitherto little understood crime, internal child sex trafficking (ICST). This original large-scale study, the first of its kind in the UK, addressed an important knowledge gap in the literature and publications from this thesis have been used to support new investigations, policy development and to guide further academic research. Through access to sensitive and restricted documents and case files, this thesis explored the group-based element to ICST offending and identified patterns and typologies. Through identified commonalities among ICST cases, the thesis focused on supporting future investigations and prosecutions through four main approaches. First, an exploration of different group-based factors to ICST was conducted. This included identifying methods of recruitment, such as introduction via another offender, and benefits to joining a group, such as additional access to children or abuse locations. Second, an assessment of investigative and prosecution strategies was conducted which showed a wide range of tactics being used with no consistent approach across force areas. Third, a forensic experimental study was conducted aimed at improving understanding around persistence of semen on stained then laundered clothing, a common scenario seen in ICST cases. The findings from this study showed that the tested samples contained enough DNA to produce a full profile for use in UK and international courts, an important development for supporting future ICST cases. Finally, an eight theme framework for understanding a group’s structure and function was developed and examined using SWOT analysis. Suggestions such as the use of undercover police officers or targeted awareness raising were presented as possible options for tackling ICST groups. To conclude, the thesis discussed the potential use of tactics employed in other crime investigations, including covert policing and the use of victim reception centres, when conducting future ICST operations

Children, gender and sexual exploitation: A quantitative analysis of adminstrative data

In this case study, we focus on our recent large-scale quantitative analysis of 9,042 children who accessed sexual exploitation support services provided by a major UK charity. In doing so, our aim is to discuss the practicalities of one important but often neglected source of data for research into child sexual exploitation: data that are routinely generated and collected by non-academic institutions in the course of their everyday business activities. There are considerable practical, logistical and ethical benefits to using such secondary data. Child sexual exploitation is a highly sensitive and largely hidden issue that is notoriously difficult to research. Consequently, we benefitted greatly from the unobtrusive approach, increased reach and cost-effectiveness, that our research design permitted. Nonetheless, there can also be substantial challenges associated with working with secondary data not generated for research purposes. Among the key barriers we encountered were lack of clarity around key terms and fundamental parameters, missing data and difficulties finding appropriate baselines against which to interpret our results. We will discuss approaches we took to mitigate these challenges and to ensure high-quality research outputs. Finally, we will reflect on some more general lessons both for the providers and the users of non-research oriented secondary data. Their application, we contend, could help ensure more effective research collaborations in future

Child sexual exploitation and youth offending: A research note

Links between child sexual exploitation (CSE) and youth offending should be better recognised, according to these preliminary research findings from the UK. Data from a leading CSE service provider and Youth Offending Team were analysed for the period 2001–2010 inclusive. Of CSE victims, 40 percent had offending records and recidivism rates were high. Together they committed 1586 offences – 5 percent of all local youth crime. Male and female offending behaviour differed significantly. The types of offences identified were potentially symptomatic of CSE. Referral to CSE services typically post-dated arrest, indicating that children were recognised first as offenders. Challenges in researching the interactions between these two complex issues are discussed. This study has important implications for youth justice policy and practice, both nationally and internationally

Human trafficking and labour exploitation in the casual construction industry: An analysis of three major investigations in the United Kingdom involving Irish Traveller offending groups

Human trafficking and modern slavery are routinely framed as key threats facing society. Despite increased media, policy, and practitioner attention the evidence base remains underdeveloped. The numerous knowledge gaps include a lack of empirical studies and research into labour trafficking. Since labour trafficking is a complex and varied phenomenon, we chose to explore one subset of it in a systematic, detailed, and empirical fashion. Our focus was exploitation in the casual construction industry in the UK perpetrated by Irish Traveller offending groups. We used hard-to-reach data from three major police investigations, namely operational case files and interviews with senior investigating officers. Taking a qualitative approach, we disentangled behaviours and dynamics across three major stages in the trafficking process: recruitment, control, and exploitation. We identified key challenges associated with investigating this crime. In discussing our study’s implications for research, policy, and practice, we also include officers’ recommendations for future cases

British children can be trafficked too: towards an inclusive definition of internal child sex trafficking

In research, policy and practice, internal trafficking has been long overshadowed by its international counterpart. Despite the introduction of specific legislation against internal sex trafficking, confusion remains in Britain around how this crime is distinguished from other forms of sexual exploitation. In particular, there have been growing tensions around whether British children can be victims. The need for clarity and consistency has been highlighted by a series of high-profile cases involving British minors being moved within the UK for sexual exploitation. This article brings ongoing definitional debate into the academic arena, exploring the contents and validity of common arguments against accepting Britons as valid victims. It engages with academic studies, government and third-sector reports, parliamentary debate and legal statute. Additionally, it features arguments raised by practitioners and policy-makers at conferences, training and meetings. It proposes an inclusive and more clearly delineated definition of internal child sex trafficking. The acceptance and application of a standardised definition would facilitate more effective, transparent and consistent multi-agency interventions and data collection. The article will be of interest to practitioners, policy-makers and academics. It focuses on the UK but contributes to wider international discourse around internal trafficking

The Value of Crime Scripting: Deconstructing Internal Child Sex Trafficking

This article demonstrates how Crime Scripting is a viable and cost-effective tool in supporting strategic policing without requiring additional data, software, or training. This study shows how a script can deconstruct a complex crime into its component parts and create a set of outcome-focused recommendations informed by the principles of Situational Crime Prevention. Scripting offers an effective framework for collating and condensing voluminous data in order to establish a clear sequence of actions and decisions crucial to a given crime. This practical introduction to Scripting uses the example of Internal Child Sex Trafficking (ICST), a little-understood crime which has increasingly attracted police and government attention. Key findings from the offender-focused script highlight areas for harm-reduction interventions which go beyond traditional enforcement to include detection, disruption, and awareness. This article concludes by exploring the results’ application to diverse areas including policing, legal strategies, policy and research, and youth work and education

Persistence of DNA from laundered semen stains: Implications for child sex trafficking cases

In sexual assault cases, particularly those involving internal child sex trafficking (ICST), victims often hide their semen-stained clothing. This can result in a lag time of several months before the items are laundered and subsequently seized during a criminal investigation. Although it has been demonstrated previously that DNA can be recovered from clothing washed immediately after semen deposition, laundered items of clothing are not routinely examined in ICST cases, due to the assumption that the time delay and washing would result in no detectable DNA. The aim of this study was to examine whether viable DNA profiles could be recovered from laundered semen stains where there has been a significant lag time between semen deposition from one or more individuals and one or more washes of the stained clothing. Items of UK school uniform (T-shirts, trousers, tights) were stained with fresh semen (either from a single donor or a 1:1 mixture from two donors) and stored in a wardrobe for eight months. Stained and unstained items (socks) were then washed at 30°C or 60°C and with non-biological or biological detergent. DNA samples extracted from the semen-stained sites and from the unstained socks were quantified and profiled. High quantities of DNA, (6-18μg) matching the DNA profiles of the semen donors, were recovered from all semen-stained clothing that had been laundered once, irrespective of wash conditions. This quantity,and profile quality,did not decline significantly with multiple washes. The two donor semen samples yielded ∼10-fold more DNA from the T-shirts than from the trousers. This disparity resulted in the T-shirts yielding a ∼1:1 mixture of DNA from the two donors, whereas the trousers yielded a major DNA profile matching only that of the second donor. The quantities of DNA recovered from the unstained socks were an order of magnitude lower, with most of the DNA being attributable to the donor of the semen on the stained clothing within the same wash, demonstrating the transfer of semen-derived DNA among items of clothing in the washing machine. This study demonstrates that complete DNA profiles can be obtained from laundered semen stains on school uniform-type clothing, with an eight-month lag time between semen deposition and laundering, despite multiple washes and stains from two semen donors. These data emphasise the need to recover and examine the clothing of victims for semen and DNA evidence, even if the clothing has been stored for several months or washed multiple times since the sexual offence took place

Towards a common framework for assessing the activity and associations of groups who sexually abuse children

Extensive social psychological research emphasises the importance of groups in shaping individuals' thoughts and actions. Within the child sexual abuse (CSA) literature criminal organisation has been largely overlooked, with some key exceptions. This research was a novel collaboration between academia and the UK's Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (CEOP). Starting from the premise that the group is, in itself, a form of social situation affecting abuse, it offers the first systematic situational analysis of CSA groups. In-depth behavioural data from a small sample of convicted CSA group-offenders (n =3) were analysed qualitatively to identify factors and processes underpinning CSA groups' activities and associations: group formation, evolution, identity and resources. The results emphasise CSA groups' variability, fluidity and dynamism. The foundations of a general framework are proposed for researching and assessing CSA groups and designing effective interventions. It is hoped that this work will stimulate discussion and development in this long-neglected area of CSA, helping to build a coherent knowledge-base